The Origin of the Planet’s Toponyms

9. The sounds of drinking: “ms”

Another palette of protoroots formed the sounds of drinking. In ancient times, there were no glasses and mugs, so our ancestors either drank from the reservoirs, or get running water into the palm of their hand; they drew it in, as sometimes, children or tourists do. What kind of sound is produced by such drink? Only the sound of “ms”. “M” is the sound of food, but in this case, it is liquid food, the consumption of which is accompanied by a “whistling” sound – the sound of “s”. It formed protoroot with the meaning “drinking water”. It can be found everywhere in the names of localities where water is suitable for drinking. There are many of such toponyms\place names on the planet, I found more than three hundred of them on the map, although I assume that there are many more. This is our Moskva-reka (Moscow river), the Mississippi, the “Temza” (the Thames), and Lake Michigan. This root has been preserved in various languages – for example, in Japanese, where there is still the word “mizi” with the meaning “water” and there is the word “mizimi” with the meaning of “lake”.

The protoroot “ms” formed the Russian word “mezhdu” (between). The origin of the meaning is understandable: any body of water, and especially a river, always divides something: the left bank of the river, the right bank… The river seems to be “mezhdu” (between). In the Greek language, the single root word “meso” (μέσος) – has the meaning of “middle”, “the middle”. From this understanding came the meaning of the word “mezha” (boundary-line), “meso” (meso, mezzo) and the case form “midas” (median, medium, and others).

At some stage, the sound “ms” began to be included in the names and titles of rulers: Ahura Mazda, Gilgamesh, Masra (in Hebrew Mizri or Michri), Ramses, Ahmose, Thutmose, Messiah, Mashiach, Moses, and Monomakh. More recently, the word “tomos” – a verdict, a decree of the ruler, has become popular. There are several versions of how the root “ms” came to mean power. The key to this solution can be the ancient Greek word “pyramis” (πυραμίς) and its case form “pyramid” (πυραμίδος).

10. The protoroots “ai/ay” [aɪ] up

and “ia/ya” down

About the “mountain beginning” say protoroots “ay” [aɪ] and “ya”. They are often found in the names of mountains, ridges or mountain rivers. The combination of the sounds “i” [j] and “a” is formed when we looking up. If a person raises his head at the same time when pronouncing any sounds, then the vowels – first, the “a” sound come out unhindered. But as soon as the trachea bends, interrupting the air, a “y” sound appears. From this movement of the head two ancient protoroots appeared: “ai” is a movement up, “ia” is a movement down. Or simply: “ai”—at the top, “ia”—from top to the bottom.

There is a beautiful example to understand how words appeared in ancient times – this is the English word “ice”, consisting of two roots: “ai” and “s”. The first signified upward movement, the second is water. Where “above” could be water? Only in the mountains, on icy snow-capped peaks. Therefore, the word “ice”—even without translation means “mountain water” frozen on the tops. Protoroot “ai” gave the name of the white [waɪt] color. Where could the ancient people see the white color? Only on the snow-capped peaks of high mountains.

For some peoples, “ai” is the moon. When our ancestors looked at the moon with their heads up, the same “ai” sound was heard. The moon has been worshipped for thousands of years. It may be recalled that the biblical Sarah, born in Sumer, was named Sar-Ai, which meant “the earth watered with water, fertilized under the moon.” Subsequently, in Egypt, Sarah changed her faith, and they began to call her Sar-Ra, where “ra” is the sun.

Toponyms also tell us about the downward movement, when it is a descent from a mountain or deep hollows on the surface of the ground. It is because of the property of swamp bogs to suck people. Because of that the name of Baba Yaga appeared. “Yaga” is “ya-ga” – the way down. Our fabulous grandmother used to be a grandfather – an elder of the tribe – “baba”, whose duties included making a sacrifice. It was one of the oldest traditions of natural (or rather artificial) selection, when sick and unviable tribesmen were sacrificed to swamp fires. Therefore, the ancient Indo-European word “agni” has two meanings: both fire and sacrifice at the same time. Thousands of years later, the familiar “grandchildren” of Baba Yaga, “yag-monas”, “hegemons”, “igimons” and unscrupulous “maniacs” appeared. The name Yahweh also comes from very ancient beliefs, when sacrifice was not so much a cult rite as a condition of survival.

Protoroot “ya” formed words such as yama, yasnyi (clear), yakor’ (anchor), yati (clear), yamega (seam in a sheepskin coat or fishing nets), and others. This protoroot found in the names Yokohama or Rambouillet, but more often simultaneously with protoroot “ay/ai”. For example, Sayans (s-ai-ya-na), Hawaii (ga-v-ai-ya) or our Crimean Aya (ai-ya), literally “up and down”.

11. The most popular ancient protoroot: “kale”, “gale” and “liga”

With the development of language, people have learned to supplement the meanings of individual sounds with other sounds that complement, explain and expand their meaning. This is how stable combinations appeared, forming complex protoroots. Let us consider the combination of the sounds of breathing “ga-ka” – path-road and the soft sound “l’” – beloved, pleasant, comfortable, desirable and even divine.

The combination of “ka-l’” and “ga-l’” meant a favorite, desired, convenient way and marked thousands and thousands of convenient roads, directions and passages. We can see it from Kiel, Calais, Caledonia, Gulf Stream and Calcutta to Baikal and Oklahoma. The toponym was so popular that its meaning “beloved” and “pleasant” began to refer not only to the convenience of roads, but also to other phenomena of life. In the languages of many peoples, you will find an incredibly large number of words forming other, “related” meanings, from the Greek “calligraphy”, “kallistrat” and “kalliope”, the Jewish “kagal”, “Halakha” and “Holocaust”, European “Gauls” and “Celts” [kelts], Asian “Mongols”, “kalmyks” and “karakalpaks” to modern “hall”, “zerkalo” (mirror), “globe”, “klizma” (enema) and “steklo” (glass). Even the name of the famous Huckleberry Finn includes an understanding of the “favorite way”. Special attention can be paid to such ancient word formations as “sickle” (si-kale) – the movement of water, and subsequently grain as a measure of value, the related “shekel” (she-kale) – the movement of grain, and the oldest “gold” – formed from both the measure of value and the secret “da”. Later, “gold” has been the circulation of a yellow metal, gold. Well, the most beautiful, preserved from ancient times, for me is the ancient Greek greeting “kali mero”, which has made its way from the meaning of “good way” to the modern “good afternoon”.

Reading the sounds “ga” and “l’” in reverse order formed the word “liga” (league) with the meaning “the way of the beloved and binding”, “connection/union”. Combining sounds in this order has not lost its participation in the movement. For example, a soldier’s boot with ties in Ancient Rome was called “kaliga”, and the emperor with the nickname “kaliga” was named Caligula. With a high degree of probability, it can be assumed that the word “igo” (yoke) is a distorted word “liga”. A yoke is a rope that binds livestock. It is the same meaning as in the word “liga”. The Tatar-Mongol yoke, or rather (this is my point of view) the “Tartar-Mongol igo” is an association linking farmers (to-ar, to-ar) and nomads (mono-gale). The syllable “go” [gɔ] in the word “gosudarstvo” (in English the word “government” with the same protoroot exists, and in Spanish – “gobierno”) also has the meaning of “unification”, and the Chinese game “Go” is an ancient art of control or government. According to the sinologist Andrey Devyatov, “go” in Chinese means “gosudarstvo” (state). Moreover, in Japanese, the game of “Go” is still called “I-go” [ɪ-gɔ].

12. A combination of breathing sounds

and an aggressive “r” sound: “kr-gr”, “rk-rg” and “pr-rp”

Not all roads were convenient and beloved for our ancestors. There were also difficult and dangerous areas, which, unlike the soft “l’” sound, were marked with an aggressive “r” sound. Why were such roads inconvenient? For example, sharp stones that cut bare feet and broke bones. These were roads littered with broken trees or fallen boulders. It could be a swamp, mountain peaks or hills. Apparently, the protoroots “gr”, “kr”, “rg” and “rk” appeared in such way.

These protoroots formed many toponyms from Greece, Georgia, Crimea and Gurzuf to the usual words: “kremen’” (flint), granite, “krepost’” (fortress), Riga and even “krov’” (blood). I would like to draw your attention to the fact that in the explanatory dictionary of Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl, along with the modern meaning of the word “riga”, the old one has also preserved, “riga” is an inconvenient, dangerous and bad way. For a long time I could not understand how the name of the city of Paris (Perigee) appeared, but everything turned out to be quite simple.

However, what would happen if forest fires blocked the way? How could our ancestors have designated their aggressive and fiery breath? This is how the aggressive protoroot “pr” appeared. It formed the basis of the word “ogon’” (fire) itself. In ancient Greek, πῦρ means fire. Now few people remember this, but this root has preserved many words. What are these words? Pyrotechnics, Prometheus, pyramid, “pir” (feast) and, of course, our “pirozhok” (pie). The words “rapier”, “shampur” (skewer) and “pirate” also be relevant to fire. Who, when and for how long mastered the fire, we will never know. Archaeologists call different dates of the beginning of the use of fire by ancient man. From a million years to seventy thousand. However, it is one thing to learn how to use the fire forest fires, to learn how to keep it, and it is quite another thing to learn how to extract it yourself and use it in production. It is interesting that Russian word “ogon’” goes back to the fires of the swamp, but the root “pir” (πῦρ) was also used.

13. The sound of food “m”

and the aggressive protoroot “r”:

“mr” and “rm”

There is no need to talk about delicious and pleasant food. The food is always pleasant. Probably, it is possible to enhance its taste with a soft sound “l’” – “ml’”, “ml`eko” (an ancient form of the word “moloko” – “milk” ), “molot’” (grind), “mal`en`kiy” (small), but there is no great need for this. Although were found many “sacred stones” on which grain was ground.

However, there is a need to protect people from trouble and aggressive danger that food can bring. Therefore, two combinations of protoroots: “mr” and “rm” appeared. Despite the fact that they are based on two roots: “m” for food and “r” for aggression, their meaning is markedly different.

The protoroot “mr” – “aggressive food” – has the meaning “mertviy” (dead). Perhaps, “food that carries aggression, trouble, pain and death.” It formed a large number of words: “mor” (pestilence), “mertviy” (dead), “smrad” (stench), “merzost’” (abomination) and others. This is the “moroz” (frost) that kills all living things. This is also the “more” (sea), the famous “mertvayavoda” (dead water), unsuitable for drinking, but having healing properties, water which has retained its name in Russian folk tales about “living” water and “dead” water. This is the Greek god of dreams Morpheus, and even the science of “morphology”. Surprisingly, this root also forms the word “mir” (peace). However, the interpretation is a little creepy: peace (mir) came after the last warrior died. There was no one to fight. Then came “mir” – eternal rest. “Zamirenie” (from Russian archaic verb “usmirit’” which meant, “to make piece”). Over time, the meaning of the word expanded, but the original meaning “absence of war”, or “to replace war” remained.

The protoroots “m” and “r” in reverse order form a protoroot that has a completely different meaning. “Rm” is aggression that prevents access to food. It is easier to understand its meaning if we consider the word “rama” (frame) formed by this root. Russian Dictionary by Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl or the etymological dictionary of the Russian language by Max Fasmer is enough to hear the whole palette of meanings of this ancient protoroot. Moreover, both Fasmer and Dahl explain this word in exactly the same way. Only Fasmer believes that this word is German, and Dahl writes that the Germans borrowed it from the Slavs. The word “ramo” has quite a lot of meanings, from the concept of “plecho” (shoulder) to a variety of meanings: “buiniy” (violent), “sil`niy” (strong), “ogromniy” (huge), “krepkiy” (hard), “dremuchiy” (dense), “kray” (edge), “granitsa” (border). It even reaches such meanings as “chudo” (miracle) and “chudovishche” (monster). Such were the obstacles that a person had to overcome in order to get food and survive.

14. The sounds of contact, “poking” and the aggressive sound “r”: “tr” and “dr”

Any contact is always dangerous because it can damage the arm, leg or even the head. Even a random hit a rock, a sharp twig, or an unsuccessful fall. What about a non-random hit? The stronger the hit, the more pain it causes. This is how the aggressive touch protoroots “tr” and “dr” formed. These protoroots were the basis of a large number of words that have the meaning of aggressive contact, causing pain and damage. The simplest word is “dira”. Its basis has been preserved in many languages: in Russian – “dira”, in English – a tear, in French – un trou, in German – durchbruch, in Greek – τρύπα, in Latin – foraminis.

A strong hit always damages or pierces something. The smoke outlet tear is a “truba” (pipe), (protoroots: tr-po). The hole for the air outlet is the “trahea”, (trachea) (protoroots: tr-ho). A hole from a blow is a “travma” (injury) (protoroots: tr-v-ma). A hole in the skull during surgeryis “trepanachiya” (trepanation) (protoroots: tr-panachiya). Quarrel and striking is a fight (“draka”, protoroots: dr-ka), that is, a dira/tear in the head. Oven with a hole is “tandir” (tandoor) (tan-dr). An open hole in the sky is atrium (protoroots: a-tr). An open “dira” to the gods is “teatr” (theater) (protoroots: teo-a-tr). Even the word “trusi” (drawers)is also “holes made in the skin where the legs were inserted”. The British also have underpants with “dira” – drawers, and clothes with “dira” – dresses. The dress code is also about drawers.

In ancient Greek the male name Peter had the meaning “stone, rock” (πέτρος). How could it have appeared? The protoroots forming it: “po” is “along” and “tr” is “dira”, originally spoke of a rocky terrain with sharply protruding stones that wounded, pierced the legs. Later sharp stones were used as tools, preserving both the protoroots “po” and “tr”, and the semantic meaning of “stone”. For example, we can compare it with the name of Khan Giray. “Gr-ay” is “strong as a rock”. The word “geroy” is in the same logic. Strong people were compared to the fortress of a stone or a rock.

There are a huge number of words of the same root. There are also many toponyms that formed these protoroots. We will review some, but among them there is the most famous and oldest toponym —Troy. Troy is a “dira”, a passage to other seas, which the Trojans fiercely defended and for which they extract tribute. Until now, the passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles Straits is regulated by various conventions, and wars were fought for this right before.

15. Ancient prepositions

In any textbook of the Russian language there is a section telling about prepositions called ancient or the most ancient. We have many scientific works about prepositions and their properties and we will try to understand how these prepositions appeared and what meanings they were endowed with. Someday, ignorance of these basics put one of the leaders of the Institute of the Russian language in an awkward situation. Therefore, understanding the meaning of ancient prepositions should be treated with great attention.

It is believed that there are quite a lot of prepositions. One scientific work quotes the figure 127. But usually the following prepositions are included in the textbook list: “v” (in/into), “bez” (without), “do” (before), “iz” (from), “k” (to), “na” (on/onto), “po” (along), “o” (about), “ot” (from), “pered” (in front of), “pri” (near), “cherez” (through), “s” (with), “y” (near/next to), “za” (for/behind), “nad” (over), “ob” (about), “pod” (under), “pro” (about) and"dlya” (for). I think that readers who have read the previous pages will immediately determine that prepositions are protoroots, some of which we have already considered.

For example, the simplest ancient preposition is “k” (to). If the sounds “x”, “g” and “k” went back to human breathing, then the ancient preposition “k” belongs to this group. Its meaning is close to the meaning of “way” or “direction” – where to go, what we will come to.

The ancient preposition (protoroot) “o” and its sound most likely got its meaning from the shape of the lips. It is a circle, around. It is that surrounds something.

There are a number of prepositions, phonemes, protoroots that are associated with a person’s action, with his contact with the environment and his/her penetration into it. In this regard, the preposition “v” is interesting; it denotes effort, tension, desire to get inside something. It is directly related to the extraction of insects or small animals from hidden places: whether it is the stem of a plant, or the trunk of a tree, or a hole in the ground. An ancient man needed not only to look for food, but also to be able to extract it by looking inside. This explains why both in the Russian word “zhivot” (belly) and in the Latin word “vita” the sound “v” is the main one.

We can make out one of the forms of the preposition “v” (in) – the basic word “vnutr’” (inside). The sound “n” denotes the taste of food, the protoroots “tr-dr” go back to “aggressive poking”, or, in other words, piercing something/making a hole. The root “dr” is a hole in which delicious food is hidden and which you need to get to.

For a long time, I could not determine how the sound “s” got the values “vmeste” (together), “soedinyat’” (connect), “sootnosit`sya” (relate) and others. The assumptions were different. However, as a result I concluded that the meaning of the ancient root “s” comes from the properties of water to “razmyahchat’” (soften), “rastvoryat’” (dissolve), “skleivat’” (stick).

The ancient preposition “u”, being the sound of breathing, had a special connotation – it attracted the attention of tribesmen to some circumstance, phenomenon or object. It is the sound of moaning, the sound of crying. This is an “invitation” to come closer, to share your pain. Its later meanings are “vozle” or “okolo” that somehow denoted “souchastie/complicity”, closeness, belonging to someone, involvement. It was impossible to go far from the place where the children were, where there was a hearth that needed to be guarded. Therefore, the ancient protoroot “du” (do-u) is the limit beyond which it was impossible to move away. Duga (arc), a curve, a habitat around a house. How do people check how far they have moved away from home? You can remember what they are shouting: “A-u!”

Some prepositions are paired. For example, the prepositions “ot” and “to” [tɒ]. “Ot” is a kind of space in the circle of the place “t”, the starting point. “To” not only indicates this place, but also speaks about its boundaries. The ringing “do” is especially significant; it is the limit beyond which it is impossible to go. Therefore, it turns out that you can only move “ot and do”.

In a pair of “po” (along) and “ob” (about) are the same principle. “Po” is along and “ob” is what this “po” surrounds.

The pair “nad” (over) and “pod” (under) is also quite understandable. “Pod” is along the “do”. Along some limit or obstacles. For example, if a city was built on a hill, the district around the city was called “podol”. The ancient preposition “nad” has a different meaning. Literally from above “do”, beyond the limit. Overcoming some obstacle. In English, the word “need” has retained the full range of meanings, but the spelling and pronunciation were distorted.

In the pair “an” and “na”, the proroot “an” is almost lost. Although sometimes you can hear a phrase: “an net” (Russian exclamation with the meaning “no”) “An” is what should appear and “on” is what is already there.

In the same way as in the pair “az” and “za” (for). To better understanding the meaning of these roots, imagine a stream. What floats from above and should come to you is “az” or “as” – before. But when it comes level with you and swims on – it’s already “za” or “sa”. “Z” (s) is water. “Za” is something that has already floated or flowed away.

Anticipating and waiting for the sunrise and its appearance is “raz” (ra-az). Then the sun has already appeared, it is “za – ra” or “zarya” (dawn). Everything is extremely simple. It is surprising that the heads of the Institute of the Russian language, who have all kinds of academic degrees and titles, do not know such simple things. I happened to meet the rising of the sun on Shamanka (Shaman Rock) in the ancient settlement of Arkaim on the day of the summer solstice. It is an extraordinary feeling when it is already light, but the sun is not visible. And suddenly the first ray, and hundreds of joyful people which hands are raised. It is not bad that the ritual of meeting the sun has been revived, even in such a modest form.

The preposition “s” (without) indicates the absence of something. It is not easy to determine how this preposition appeared in colloquial speech. There is a version that the preposition “s” is related to the roots “bezh” and “beg” (running). Could it be related to hunting when the prey ran away? Of course, the version is not very convincing. There is also a regular version. The preposition consists of two protoroots: “po” and “za”. In this case, we are talking about something unattainable, which is “za” (beyond) the limits of the possible.

The preposition “cherez” (through) can help us to understand the meaning of the preposition “s”. Despite the apparent complexity, it is quite simple to understand. Let us divide the preposition into protoroots: “che-re-za”. “Che” is “water”, a slightly modified protorootroot of “s”. The aggressive root “r” is what cuts. For example, “reka” (river) is a way cut by water: “re-ka”(ga), “bereg” (shore) is “po-re-ga”, “along the river”. Well, we already know the preposition “za” (behind). What happens? Something and somewhere, behind something cut, separated by water? Something beyond the water, beyond the river, beyond the puddle? Moreover, the ancient preposition is constructed in the same way as the word “seredina” (middle). Only in the “seredina” instead of the “za” root, the “dono” root. “s” is water, “re” is to cut or divide and “dono” is a deep channel or depth. The seredina (middle) is a synonym for the words “mezha” and “messo” and appeared with the participation of the same “voda” (water). If you think a little, you can understand that the whole line of single-root words: Greek “καρδιά”, Latin “cordia”, English “heart”, German “Herz” – it is all from our “seredina”, from our “serdtse” (heart). Even when we are idly strolling along Jerusalem’s Cardot Street, we can remember that the origins of the name are in our great and mighty, amazing and native Russian language.

However, such a seemingly simple preposition “pered” (in front of) is both easy and difficult to explain. I can assume that the meaning-forming ones are the protoroots “po”, “p” and “do”. “Pr” is “along some kind of aggression.” For example, the thresholds in the toponym Dnipro (dono-pr). “Do” is a kind of insurmountable obstacle. That is, “pr-do” is “along an aggressive and insurmountable obstacle.” But that would be too easy. It is impossible not to take into account the combination of the roots “re” and “do”. To cut, “redit’” or “ryadit’”, “to row”, divide into parts. Therefore, I can propose the following version. “Pr-do” is overcoming an obstacle. If “to-do” is overcoming the obstacle “from above”, then “to-do” is “aggressive overcoming”. The words “predshevstvuushchiy” (preceding), “perviy” (first) and others are of the same root. The one who paves the way. The one who follows, he already passes through the punched dyru (hole), “v-tr”. He is the second. It is a very curious version. Moreover, in terms of meanings, it is completely consistent with the ancient Indian vitaras – “leading on”. But, as the outstanding Russian linguist Alexander NikolaevichDragunkin once wrote to me, we can never be absolutely sure that this is how the language sounded thousands of years ago. However, do not be discouraged. At one time, Titus Lucretius Kar in the book “De rerum natura” also operated with guesses, but the desire to understand the processes of being, to establish cause-and-effect relationships was very useful for those who followed, for the “second”. Therefore, I suggest readers to think independently at their leisure about the meaning and origin of the ancient preposition “pered”.