Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The complete guide to the use of aromatic oils in aromatherapy, herbalism, health and well-being.
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HarperThorsons
An Imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers 77–85 Fulham Palace Road, Hammersmith, London W6 8JB
www.harpercollins.co.uk
First published in Great Britain in 1992 by Element Books Limited
This revised and updated edition published by HarperThorsons 2014
Botanical illustrations by Sarah Roche
© Julia Lawless 1992
A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library
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Source ISBN: 9780007145188
EPub Edition © SEPTEMBER 2014 ISBN: 9780007405213
Version: 2014-10-01
DEDICATION
To my mother, Kerttu
CONTENTS
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
How to Use This Book
Part I: An Introduction to Aromatics
1. Historical Roots
Natural Plant Origins
Ancient Civilizations
Treasures from the East
Alchemy
The Scientific Revolution
2. Aromatherapy and Herbalism
The Birth of Aromatherapy
Herbal Medicine
Therapeutic Guidelines
Safety Precautions
3. The Body-Actions and Applications
How Essential Oils Work
The Skin
The Circulation, Muscles and Joints
The Respiratory System
The Digestive System
The Genito-urinary and Endocrine Systems
The Immune System
The Nervous System
The Mind
4. How to use Essential Oils at Home
Massage
Skin Oils and Lotions
Hot and Cold Compresses
Hair Care
Flower Waters
Baths
Vaporization
Steam Inhalation
Douche
Neat Application
Internal Use
5. Creative Blending
Therapeutic and Aesthetic Properties
Correct Proportions
Synergies
Fragrant Harmony
Personal Perfumes
6. A Guide to Aromatic Materials
Habitat
Chemistry
Methods of Extraction
Natural versus ‘Nature Identical’
Part II: THE OILS
Ajowan
Allspice
Almond, Bitter
Ambrette Seed
Amyris
Angelica
Anise, Star
Aniseed
Arnica
Asafetida
Balsam, Canadian
Balsam, Copaiba
Balsam, Peru
Balsam, Tolu
Basil, Exotic
Basil, French
Bay, West Indian
Benzoin
Bergamot
Birch, Sweet
Birch, White
Boldo Leaf
Borneol
Boronia
Broom, Spanish
Buchu
Cabreuva
Cade
Cajeput
Calamintha
Calamus
Camphor
Cananga
Caraway
Cardamon
Carrot Seed
Cascarilla Bark
Cassia
Cassie
Cedarwood, Atlas
Cedarwood, Texas
Cedarwood, Virginian
Celery Seed
Chamomile, German
Chamomile, Maroc
Chamomile, Roman
Champaca
Chervil
Cinnamon
Citronella
Clove
Coriander
Costus
Cubebs
Cumin
Cypress
Deertongue
Dill
Dorado Azul
Elecampane
Elemi
Eucalyptus, Blue Gum
Eucalyptus, Broad-leaved Peppermint
Eucalyptus, Lemon-Scented
Fennel
Fenugreek
Fir Needle, Silver
Fragonia
Frangipani
Frankincense
Galangal
Galbanum
Gardenia
Garlic
Geranium
Ginger
Goldenrod
Grapefruit
Greenland Moss
Grindelia
Guaiacwood
Ho Wood
Hops
Horseradish
Hyacinth
Hyssop
Immortelle
Jaborandi
Jasmine
Juniper
Labdanum
Laurel
Lavandin
Lavender, Spike
Lavender, True
Lemon
Lemongrass
Lime
Linaloe
Linden
Litsea Cubeba
Lotus
Lovage
Mandarin
Manuka
Marigold
Marjoram, Sweet
Mastic
Melilotus
Melissa
Mimosa
Mint, Cornmint
Mint, Peppermint
Mint, Spearmint
Mugwort
Mustard
Myrrh
Myrtle
Narcissus
Neroli
Niaouli
Nutmeg
Oakmoss
Onion
Opopanax
Orange, Bitter
Orange, Sweet
Oregano, Common
Oregano, Spanish
Orris
Osmanthus
Palmarosa
Parsley
Patchouli
Pennyroyal
Pepper, Black
Petitgrain
Pine, Dwarf
Pine, Longleaf
Pine, Scotch
Plai
Ravensara
Ravintsara
Rose, Cabbage
Rose, Damask
Rosemary
Rosewood
Rue
Sage, Clary
Sage, Common
Sage, Spanish
Sandalwood
Santolina
Sassafras
Savine
Savory, Summer
Savory, Winter
Schinus Molle
Snakeroot
Spikenard
Spruce, Hemlock
Styrax, Levant
Tagetes
Tansy
Tarragon
Tea Tree
Thuja
Thyme, Common
Tonka
Tuberose
Turmeric
Turpentine
Valerian
Vanilla
Verbena, Lemon
Vetiver
Violet
Wintergreen
Wormseed
Wormwood
Yarrow
Ylang Ylang
References
Bibliography
Useful Addresses
General Glossary
Therapeutic Index
Botanical Classification
Botanical Index
Acknowledgements
About the Author
About the Publisher
Woodcut from the title page of the Crete Herball, 1526
PREFACE
My own interest in essential oils and herbal remedies derives from the maternal side of my family who came from Finland, where home ‘simples’ retained popularity long after they had vanished from most parts of Britain. My Finnish grandmother knew a great deal about herbs and wild plants which she passed on to my mother, as she recalls:
Mama’s most important herb was parsley, which along with dill, marjoram, hops and others, were dried in bunches in the autumn, dangling at the ends of short lengths of cotton, all strung on a long length of thin rope stretching right across the kitchen stove. As scents are very evocative for remembering old things, I remember it so well – the strong and heady smell emanating from these herbs when they were hung up, and the stove was warm.
Later, as a biochemist, my mother became involved with the research of essential oils and plants, and helped inspire in me a fascination for herbs and the use of natural remedies. Without her early enthusiasm and guidance, I’m sure this book would never have been written.
In 1992 the first edition of this book was published in the UK. Since then it has been translated into many languages as well being released in several different formats, including an illustrated edition. Now, with this new 2014 edition, I am very glad to have the opportunity to update my original work. Apart from revising my original text, I have also included fifteen new oils, which have been chosen especially for their therapeutic potential: these include a few little-known essential oils.
In the twenty-year period since the original publication of The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils, the use of essential oils, together with the practice of aromatherapy in the West, has undergone a radical transformation. At the beginning of the 1990s, aromatherapy was still considered a fringe practice and the use of essential oils in the home was by no means widespread. However, as scientific trials and clinical research have continued to confirm the potentiality of essential oils, they have become increasingly respected within the medical arena. This has been accompanied by a steady increase of public interest in holistic therapies worldwide, and a sociological trend towards embracing all things ‘natural’ over the past two decades.
Nowadays, aromatherapy treatments are widely available, including in hospitals, while essential oils can be purchased on every high street. This change in attitude can only be of benefit, but it is worth considering that the commercialization of aromatherapy has brought its own dangers. Although essential oils are all wholly natural substances, they can be subject to adulteration, so it is important always to buy them from a reputable supplier (see here). It is also vital to check that any specific safety guidelines are followed with care at home. It is my hope that this new edition will bring fresh life to the multifaceted and multicultural study of essential oils and to the field of contemporary aromatherapy.
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils is divided into two parts:
Part I is a general introduction to aromatics, showing their changing role throughout history, from the ritual part they played in ancient civilizations, through medieval alchemy, to their modern-day applications in aromatherapy, herbalism and perfumery.
Part II is a systematic survey of over 160 essential oils shown in alphabetical order according to the common name of the plants from which they are derived. Detailed information on each oil includes its botanical origins, herbal/folk tradition, odour characteristics, principal constituents and safety data, as well as its home and commercial uses.
This book can be approached in several ways:
1. It can be employed as a concise reference guide to a wide range of aromatic plants and oils, in the same way as a traditional herbal.
2. It can be used a self-help manual, showing how to use aromatherapy oils at home for the treatment of common complaints and to promote well-being.
3. It can be read from cover to cover as a comprehensive textbook on essential oils, shown in all their different aspects.
1. When using the book as a reference guide to essential oils, the name of the plant or oil may be found in the Botanical Index at the back of the book, where it is listed under:
a) its common name: for example, frankincense;
b) its Latin or botanical term: Boswellia carteri;
c) its essential oil trade name: olibanum;
d) or by its folk names: gum thus.
Other varieties, such as Indian frankincense (Boswellia serrata), may be found in the Botanical Classification section under their common family name ‘Burseraceae’, along with related species such as elemi, linaloe, myrrh and opopanax. Less common essential oils, such as blackcurrant (which is used mainly by the food industry), do not appear in the main body of the book, but are included in the Botanical Classification section under their common family name, in this case ‘Grossulariaceae’.
2. When using the book as a self-help manual on aromatherapy, it is best to consult the Therapeutic Index at the end of the book, where common complaints are grouped according to different parts of the body:
Skin Care
Circulation, Muscles and Joints
Respiratory System
Digestive System
Genito-urinary and Endocrine Systems
Immune System
Nervous System
If for example, we have been working long hours at a desk and have developed a painful cramp in our neck, we should turn to the section on Circulation, Muscles and Joints where we find the heading ‘Muscular Cramp and Stiffness’. Of the essential oils which are listed, those shown in italics are generally considered to be the most useful and/or readily available, in this case allspice, lavender, marjoram, rosemary and black pepper. The choice of which oil to use depends on what is to hand, and on assessing the quality of each oil by consulting their entry in Part II of the book. Special attention should be paid to the safety data on each oil: both allspice and black pepper are known to be skin irritants if used in high concentration; rosemary and marjoram should be avoided during pregnancy; rosemary should not be used by epileptics at all. On the basis of our assessment, we may choose to use lavender, marjoram and a little black pepper which would make an excellent blend. Some of the principles behind blending oils can be found in Chapter 5, Creative Blending.
The various methods of application are indicated by the letters M, massage; C, compress; B, bath etc. Turn to Chapter 4, How to Use Essential Oils at Home, where you will find instructions on how to make up a massage oil or compress, and how many drops of oil to use in a bath. Further information on how essential oils work in specific cases can be found in Chapter 3, The Body – Actions and Applications.
3. Used as a comprehensive textbook, The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils provides a wealth of information about the essential oils themselves in all their various aspects, including their perfumery and flavouring applications. It shows the development of aromatics through history and the relationship between essential oils and other herbal products. It defines different kinds of aromatic materials and their methods of extraction, giving up-to-date areas of production. In addition, it includes information on their chemistry, pharmacology and safety levels. The ‘Actions’ ascribed to each plant refer either to the properties of the whole herb, or to parts of it, or to the essential oil. Difficult technical terms, mainly of a botanical or medical nature, are explained in the General Glossary at the end of the book.
However, since the therapeutic guidelines presented in the text are aimed primarily at the lay person without medical qualifications, the section dealing with the aromatherapy application of essential oils at home is limited to the treatment of common complaints only: Although there is a great deal of research being carried out at present into the potential uses of essential oils in the treatment of diseases such as cancer, AIDS and psychological disorders, these discussions fall beyond the scope of this book. References to the medical and folk use of particular plants in herbal medicine and their actions are intended to provide background information only, and are not intended as a guide for self-treatment.
1. HISTORICAL ROOTS
Natural Plant Origins
When we peel an orange, walk through a rose garden or rub a sprig of lavender between our fingers, we are all aware of the special scent of that plant. But what exactly is it that we can smell? Generally speaking, it is essential oils which give spices and herbs their specific scent and flavour, flowers and fruit their perfume. The essential oil in the orange peel is not difficult to identify; it is found in such profusion that it actually squirts out when we peel it. The minute droplets of oil which are contained in tiny pockets or glandular cells in the outer peel are very volatile, that is, they easily evaporate, infusing the air with their characteristic aroma.
A Herbalist’s Garden; Le Jardin de Santé, 1539
But not all plants contain essential or volatile oils in such profusion. The aromatic content in the flowers of the rose is so very small that it takes one ton of petals to produce 300g of rose oil. It is not fully understood why some plants contain essential oils and others not. It is clear that the aromatic quality of the oils plays a role in the attraction or repulsion of certain insects or animals. It has also been suggested that they play an important part in the transpiration and life processes of the plant itself, and as a protection against disease. They have been described as the ‘hormone’ or ‘life-blood’ of a plant, due to their highly concentrated and essential nature.
Aromatic oils can be found in all the various parts of a plant, including the seeds, bark, root, leaves, flowers, wood, balsam and resin. The bitter orange tree, for example, yields orange oil from the fruit peel, petitgrain from the leaves and twigs, and neroli oil from the orange blossoms. The clove tree produces different types of essential oil from its buds, stalks and leaves, whereas the Scotch pine yields distinct oils from its needles, wood and resin. The wide range of aromatic materials obtained from natural sources and the art of their extraction and use has developed slowly over the course of time, but its origins reach back to the very heart of the earliest civilizations.
Ancient Civilizations
Aromatic plants and oils have been used for thousands of years, as incense, perfumes and cosmetics and for their medical and culinary applications. Their ritual use constituted an integral part of the tradition in most early cultures, where their religious and therapeutic roles became inextricably intertwined. This type of practice is still in evidence: for example, in the East, sprigs of juniper are burnt in Tibetan temples as a form of purification; in the West, frankincense is used during the Roman Catholic mass.
In the ancient civilizations, perfumes were used as an expression of the animist and cosmic conceptions, responding above all to the exigencies of a cult … associated at first with theophanies and incantations, the perfumes made by fumigation, libation and ablution, grew directly out of the ritual, and became an element in the art of therapy.1
The Vedic literature of India dating from around 2000 BC, lists over 700 substances including cinnamon, spikenard, ginger, myrrh, coriander and sandalwood. But aromatics were considered to be more than just perfumes; in the Indo-Aryan tongue, ‘atar’ means smoke, wind, odour and essence, and the Rig Veda codifies their use for both liturgical and therapeutic purposes. The manner in which it is written reflects a spiritual and philosophical outlook, in which humanity is seen as a part of nature, and the handling of herbs as a sacred task: ‘Simples, you who have existed for so long, even before the Gods were born, I want to understand your seven hundred secrets! … Come, you wise plants, heal this patient for me’.2 Their understanding of plant lore developed into the traditional Indian or Ayurvedic system of medicine, which has enjoyed an unbroken transmission up to the present day.
The Chinese also have an ancient herbal tradition which accompanies the practice of acupuncture, the earliest records being in the Yellow Emperor’s Book of Internal Medicine dating from more than 2000 years BC. Among the remedies are several aromatics such as opium and ginger which, apart from their therapeutic applications, are known to have been utilized for religious purposes since the earliest times, as in the Li-ki and Tcheou-Li ceremonies. Borneo camphor is still used extensively in China today for ritual purposes. But perhaps the most famous and richest associations concerning the first aromatic materials are those surrounding the ancient Egyptian civilization. Papyrus manuscripts dating back to the reign of Khufu, around 2800 BC, record the use of many medicinal herbs, while another papyrus written about 2000 BC speaks of ‘fine oils and choice perfumes, and the incense of temples, whereby every god is gladdened’.3 Aromatic gums and oils such as cedar and myrrh were employed in the embalming process, the remains of which are still detectable thousands of years later, along with traces of scented unguents and oils such as styrax and frankincense contained in a number of ornate jars and cosmetic pots found in the tombs. The complete iconography covering the process of preparation for such oils, balsams and fermented liqueurs was preserved in stone inscriptions by the people of the Nile valley. The Egyptians were, in fact, experts of cosmetology and renowned for their herbal preparations and ointments. One such remedy was known as ‘kyphi’; a mixture of sixteen different ingredients which could be used as an incense, a perfume or taken internally as a medicine. It was said to be antiseptic, balsamic, soothing and an antidote to poison which, according to Plutarch, could lull one to sleep, allay anxieties and brighten dreams.