Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The complete guide to the use of aromatic oils in aromatherapy, herbalism, health and well-being.
CHARACTERISTICS Watery white to viscous black oil depending upon the amount of camphor which it contains, with a distinctive, sassafras-like, camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The crude is made up of mainly cl-borneol which is an alcohol, not a ketone (like Japanese camphor). The oil contains approx. 35 per cent terpenes: pinene, camphene, dipentene; 10 per cent alcohols: d-borneol, terpineol; 20 per cent sesquiterpenes, and 35 per cent resin.
SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, dermal irritant in concentration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
Skin Care: Cuts, bruises, insect repellent,
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Debility, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.
Immune System: Colds, fever, ‘flu and other infectious diseases.
Nervous System: Nervous exhaustion, stress-related conditions, neuralgia.
OTHER USES It is used to scent soap in the East but is still relatively unknown in the West in pharmaceutical and perfumery work. In China and Japan it is used for making varnish and ink; also asa dilutant for artists’ colours. Mainly used for ritual purposes in the East.
BORONIA
Boronia megastigma
FAMILY Rutaceae
SYNONYM Brown boronia.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A bushy evergreen shrub, up to 2 metres high, which bears an abundance of fragrant, nodding flowers with an unusual colouring – the petals are brown on the outside, yellow on the inside. Often grown as an ornamental shrub in gardens.
DISTRIBUTION Native to Western Australia; grows wild all over west and south west Australia.
OTHER SPECIES There are over fifteen species of boronia found in Western Australia; B. megastigma is one of the most common and the only one used for its perfume; other types smell of sarsaparilla, lemons or roses! Boronia is botanically related to the citrus tree.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION ‘A botanist in the Victorian era suggested this species would be suitable for graveyard planting because of its dark flowers!’16
ACTIONS Aromatic.
EXTRACTION A concrete and absolute by the enfleurage method or petroleum-ether extraction, from the flowers. An essential oil is also produced in small quantities by steam distillation.
CHARACTERISTICS The concrete is a dark green butterlike mass with a beautiful warm, woody-sweet fragrance; the absolute is a green viscous liquid with a fresh, fruity-spicy scent and a rich, tenacious, floral undertone. It blends well with clary sage, sandalwood, bergamot, violet, immortelle, costus, mimosa and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Notably ionone; also eugenol, triacontane, phenols, ethyl alcohol and ethyl formate, among others.
SAFETY DATA Prohibitively expensive and therefore often adulterated.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Perfume
OTHER USES The absolute is used in high-class perfumery work, especially florals. Used in specialized flavour work, especially rich fruit products.
BROOM, SPANISH
Spartium junceum
FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae).
SYNONYMS Genista juncea, genista, weavers broom, broom (absolute), genet (absolute).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A decorative plant, often cultivated as an ornamental shrub, up to 3 metres high with upright woody branches and tough flexible stems. It has bright green leaves and large, yellow, pea-like fragrant flowers, also bearing its seeds in pods or legumes.
DISTRIBUTION Native to southern Europe, especially southern Spain and southern France; mainly cultivated in Spain, France, Italy and USA (as a garden shrub). The absolute is produced in Southern France.
OTHER SPECIES Closely related to dyer’s greenweed (Genista tinctoria) and the common or green broom (Sarothamnus scoparius or Cytisus scoparius). There are also several other related species of broom, which are rich in their folk tradition.
Broom
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The twigs and bark have been used since ancient times to produce a strong fibre which can be made into cord or a coarse cloth. The branches were also used for thatching, basketwork, fencing and, of course, for making brooms. Spanish broom has similar therapeutic properties to the common broom, which is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for cardiac dropsy, myocardial weakness, tachycardia and profuse menstruation. However, the Spanish broom is said to be five to six times more active than the common broom, and even that must be used with caution by professional herbalists due to the strength of the active ingredients: ‘A number of cases of poisoning have occurred from the substitution of the dried flowers of Spartium for those of true Broom.’17
ACTIONS Antihaemorrhagic, cardioactive, diuretic, cathartic, emmenagogue, narcotic, vasoconstrictor.
EXTRACTION An absolute is obtained by solvent extraction from the dried flowers.
CHARACTERISTICS A dark brown, viscous liquid with an intensely sweet, floral, hay-like scent with a herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rose, tuberose, cassie, mimosa, violet, vetiver and herbaceous-type fragrances.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The absolute contains capryllic acid, phenols, aliphatics, terpenes, esters, scoparin and sparteine, as well as wax, etc.
SAFETY DATA Sparteine, which is contained in the flowers as the main active constituent, is toxic. In large doses, it causes vomiting, renal irritation, weakens the heart, depresses the nerve cells and lowers the blood pressure, and in extreme cases causes death.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.
OTHER USES Used in soaps, cosmetics and high-class perfumery; also as a flavour ingredient in sweet rich ‘preserves’, alcoholic and soft drinks.
BUCHU
Agothosma betulina
FAMILY Rutaceae
SYNONYMS Barosma betulina, short buchu, mountain buchu, bookoo, buku, bucca.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small shrub with simple wrinkled leaves about 1–2 cms long; other much smaller leaves are also present which are bright green with finely serrated margins. It has delicate stems bearing five petalled white flowers. The whole plant has a strong, aromatic, blackcurrant-like odour.
DISTRIBUTION Native to the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, it now grows wild all over South Africa. Dried leaves are exported to Holland, England and America.
OTHER SPECIES There are more than twelve so-called Barosma species in South Africa – the ‘true’ buchus are B. crenulata (contains high amounts of pulegone, a toxic constituent), B. serratifolia and B. betulina.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The leaves are used locally for antiseptic purposes and to ward off insects. In western herbalism, the leaves are used for infections of the genito-urinary system, such as cystitis, urethritis and prostatitis. Current in British Herbal Pharmacopoeia 1983.
ACTIONS Antiseptic (especially urinary), diuretic, insecticide.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaves.
CHARACTERISTICS Dark yellowy-brown oil with a penetrating minty-camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Diosphenol (25–40 per cent), limonene and menthane, among others.
SAFETY DATA Should not be used during pregnancy. The toxicity of buchu is unknown but since B. betulina yields oils high in diophenols and B. crenulata yields oils high in pulegone, they should both be regarded as questionable at present.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.
OTHER USES A tincture, extract and oleoresin are produced for pharmaceutical use. Limited use in blackcurrant flavour and fragrance work, for example colognes and chypre bases.
C
CABREUVA
Myrocarpus Fastigiatus
FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
SYNONYMS Cabureicica, ‘Baume de Perou brun’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A graceful, tall tropical tree, 12–15 metres high, with a very hard wood, extremely resistant to moisture and mould growth. It yields a balsam when the trunk is damaged, like many other South American trees.
DISTRIBUTION Found in Brazil, Paraguay, Chile and north Argentina.
OTHER SPECIES Many varieties of Myrocarpus yield cabreuva oil, such as M. frondosus. It is also botanically related to the trees which yield copaiba, Peru and Tolu balsam.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The wood is highly appreciated for carving and furniture making. It is used by the natives to heal wounds, ulcers and obviate scars. It was once listed in old European pharmocopoeias for its antiseptic qualities.
ACTIONS Antiseptic, balsamic, cicatrisant.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from wood chippings (waste from the timber mills).
CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow, viscous liquid with a sweet, woody-floral scent, very delicate but having great tenacity. It blends well with rose, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood, rich woody and oriental bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly nerolidol (80 per cent approx.), farnesol, bisabolol, among others.
SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
Skin Care: Cuts, scars, wounds.
Respiratory System: Chills, coughs.
Immune System: Colds.
OTHER USES Fragrance component and fixative in soaps and high-class perfumes, especially floral, woody or oriental types. Previously used for the isolation of nerolidol, now produced synthetically.
CADE
Juniperus oxycedrus
FAMILY Cupressaceae
SYNONYMS Juniper tar, prickly cedar, medlar tree, prickly juniper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large evergreen shrub up to 4 metres high, with long dark needles and brownish-black berries about the size of hazelnuts.
DISTRIBUTION Native to southern France; now common throughout Europe and North Africa. The tar is produced mainly in Spain and Yugoslavia.
OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of juniper which are used commercially apart from the prickly juniper: J. communis produces juniper oil, J. virginiana produces Virginian cedarwood oil, and in Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruits and twigs of J. smreka.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used in the treatment of cutaneous diseases, such as chronic eczema, parasites, scalp disease, hair loss, etc. especially in France and other continental countries. It is also used as an antiseptic wound dressing and for toothache.
ACTIONS Analgesic, antimicrobial, antipruritic, antiseptic, disinfectant, parasiticide, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION The crude oil or tar is obtained by destructive distillation from the branches and heartwood (usually in the form of shavings or chips). A rectified oil is produced from the crude by steam or vacuum distillation. In addition, an oil is occasionally produced from the berries by steam distillation.
CHARACTERISTICS The rectified oil is an orange-brown, oily liquid with a woody, smoky, leatherlike odour. It blends well with thyme, origanum, clove, cassia, tea tree, pine and medicinal-type bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cadinene, cadinol, p-cresol, guaiacol, among others.
SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization problems. Use with care, especially when treating inflammatory or allergic skin conditions. Turpentine (terebinth) oil makes a useful alternative, with less possibility of an allergic reaction.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
Skin Care: Cuts, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, spots, etc.
OTHER USES Extensively used in pharmaceutical work as a solvent for chemical drugs, in dermatological creams and ointments, as well as in veterinary medicine. Rectified cade is used in fragrance work, in soaps, lotions, creams and perfumes (especially leather and spice).
CAJEPUT
Melaleuca cajeputi
FAMILY Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS M. minor, cajuput, white tea tree, white wood, swamp tea tree, punk tree, paperbark tree.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall evergreen tree up to 30 metres high, with thick pointed leaves and white flowers. The flexible trunk has a whitish spongy bark which flakes off easily. In Malaysia it is called ‘caju-puti’, meaning ‘white wood’, due to the colour of the timber.
DISTRIBUTION It grows wild in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Java, Australia and south eastern Asia.
OTHER SPECIES Several other varieties of Melaleuca are used to produce cajeput oil, such as M. quinquenervia – see Botanical Classification section. Closely related to other members of the Melaleuca group, notably eucalyptus, clove, niaouli and tea tree.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Held in high regard in the East, it is used locally for colds, headaches, throat infections, toothache, sore and aching muscles, fever (cholera), rheumatism and various skin diseases. Only the oil is used in the Western herbal tradition, known for producing a sensation of warmth and quickening the pulse. It is used for chronic laryngitis and bronchitis, cystitis, rheumatism and to expel roundworm.
ACTIONS Mildly analgesic, antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antispasmodic, antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, intestinal), anthelmintic, diaphoretic, carminative, expectorant, febrifuge, insecticide, sudorific, tonic.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh leaves and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellowy-green, mobile liquid (the green tinge derives from traces of copper found in the tree), with a penetrating, camphoraceous-medicinal odour. Compared with eucalyptus oil, it has a slightly milder fruity body note.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Cineol (14–65 per cent depending on source), terpineol, terpinyl acetate, pinene, nerolidol and other traces.
SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, may irritate the skin in high concentration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
Skin Care: Insect bites, oily skin, spots.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, urethritis, urinary infection.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, viral infections.
OTHER USES Used in dentistry and pharmaceutical work as an antiseptic; in expectorant and tonic formulations, throat lozenges, gargles, etc. Used as a fragrance and freshening agent in soaps, cosmetics, detergents and perfumes. Occasionally employed as a flavour component in food products and soft drinks.
CALAMINTHA
Calamintha officinalis
FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS C. clinopodium, Melissa calaminta, calamint, common calamint, mill mountain, mountain balm, mountain mint, basil thyme, nepeta (oil), French marjoram (oil), wild basil (oil), catnip (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION An erect, bushy, perennial plant not more than one metre high, with square stems, soft oval serrated leaves, greyish-green beneath, and rather inconspicuous pale purple flowers. The whole plant has a strong aromatic scent which is attractive to cats.
Calamintha
DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and parts of Asia (Himalayas), naturalized throughout North America and South Africa. Cultivated for its oil in the Mediterranean region, Yugoslavia, Poland and in the USA.
OTHER SPECIES There are numerous similar species found throughout the world, such as the lesser calamintha (C. nepeta) which has a stronger odour and is often used interchangeably with common calamint. It is also closely related to catmint or catnip (Nepeta cataria) also known as calamint, with which it shares similar properties. Not to be confused with winter and summer savory (Satureja montana and S. hortensis).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It has a long history of use as a herbal remedy mainly for nervous and digestive complaints, also menstrual pain, colds, chills and cramp. Catmint is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic in children and for the common cold.
ACTIONS Anaesthetic (local), antirheumatic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, sedative, tonic.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow liquid with a herbaceous-woody, pungent odour, somewhat resembling pennyroyal.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Citral, nerol, citronellol, limonene and geraniol, among others. The active ingredient that attracts cats is metatabilacetone (3–5 percent). Constituents vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA Non-irritant, non-sensitizing; possible toxic effects in concentration. (The Chinese shrub Actinidia polygama also contains metatabilacetone, which is responsible for its hallucinogenic and narcotic effects.) Use in moderation. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Chills, cold in the joints, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Digestive System: Colic, flatulence, nervous dyspepsia.
Nervous System: Insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES Used as a wild cat lure in the USA. Occasionally used in perfumery work.
CALAMUS
Acorus calamus var. angustatus
FAMILY Araceae
SYNONYMS Calamus aromaticus, sweet flag, sweet sedge, sweet root, sweet rush, sweet cane, sweet myrtle, myrtle grass, myrtle sedge, cinnamon sedge.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A reed-like aquatic plant about 1 metre high, with sword-shaped leaves and small greenish-yellow flowers. It grows on the margins of lakes and streams with the long-branched rhizome immersed in the mud. The whole plant is aromatic.
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